🇨🇦Canada

Canada spans 41°41′–83°06′N as the second-largest country on Earth, covering approximately 9.98 million km² from the southern Great Lakes to the High Arctic. Six major climate regimes dominate: humid continental Dfb across the southern populated belt (Toronto, Montréal, Ottawa), warm-summer Dfa around southern Ontario, semi-arid BSk on the Prairie steppe (southern Saskatchewan and Alberta), oceanic Cfb along the Pacific coast (Vancouver, Victoria), subarctic Dfc/Dfd across the Boreal Shield and Yukon, and tundra or ice cap ET/EF in Nunavut and on Ellesmere Island. The Rocky Mountains and Coast Mountains shape steep west-to-east precipitation gradients.

Toronto averages −4°C in January and 22°C in July with 830 mm of rain; Vancouver has a mild oceanic climate at 4°C in winter and 18°C in summer with 1,200 mm and minimal snow; Winnipeg experiences continental extremes at −18°C in January and 20°C in July; Quebec City is colder and receives over 300 cm of snow; Iqaluit has tundra conditions at −27°C in January and 8°C in July; Henderson Lake on Vancouver Island receives approximately 6,500 mm annually. Major events include the 1998 Quebec ice storm, the 2016 Fort McMurray wildfire, the 2021 British Columbia heat dome (Lytton 49.6°C), and the record 2023 wildfire season. Rapid Arctic warming and permafrost thaw threaten northern infrastructure.

Our archive covers 1 Canadian cities with daily ERA5 reanalysis data going back to 1940. The warmest July averages occur in Toronto, around 26.4°C, while Toronto records the coldest January nights near −9°C. Comparing the last decade against the 1940–1970 baseline, mean temperatures across these cities have risen by about 1.4°C.