🇪🇪Estonia

Situated between 57°31′ and 59°49′N, Estonia is a small, flat Baltic nation covering approximately 45,300 km² along the Gulf of Finland to the north and the Gulf of Riga to the southwest, comprising the mainland plus over 2,200 islands led by Saaremaa and Hiiumaa.

The highest point is Suur Munamägi at 318 m in the Haanja uplands of the southeast, while the remainder consists mostly of sea-influenced lowland with extensive forests, peat bogs, and rolling moraines. The climate is uniformly humid continental Dfb, transitional between maritime west on Saaremaa and Pärnu and slightly more continental east around Tartu and Narva, with moderating influence from the Baltic Sea but cold winters and freezing northeasterly winds from Russia.

Tallinn sees January highs of −1°C and lows of −6°C and July highs of 22°C with 670 mm of rainfall fairly evenly distributed throughout the year but showing a slight late-summer maximum and winter snow cover. Tartu inland registers colder winters, with lows around −7°C, and warmer summers, while Pärnu on the western coast sees January highs of −1°C and lows of −6°C and July highs of 23°C.

The islands of Saaremaa and Hiiumaa are the warmest locations in winter. Severe cold snaps below −30°C occur during harsh winters, with the all-time low of −43.5°C recorded at Jõgeva in 1940. Summer heatwaves have brought a record 35.6°C at Võru in 1992, and 2010 saw a prolonged heatwave. In a typical winter, sea ice covers the Gulf of Finland, the Gulf of Riga and the archipelago west of Estonia. Major storm events include the severe 2005 storm Gudrun, and some storms cause coastal flooding.

Comparing the last decade against the 1940–1970 baseline, mean temperatures across these cities have risen by about 2.5°C.