🇸🇿Eswatini

Eswatini (formerly Swaziland, 17,363 km²) is a landlocked kingdom in Southern Africa, bordered by South Africa (430 km) and Mozambique (105 km), spanning elevations from the Great Usutu River at 21 m to Mount Emlembe at 1,862 m across three distinct climatic zones.

The western Highveld features temperate conditions with annual rainfall between 700–2,000 mm concentrated during November–March summer thunderstorms, supporting montane grasslands and commercial forestry; temperatures remain mild year-round, seldom uncomfortably hot.

The central Middleveld (around 700 m elevation), the most densely populated region and home to the commercial hub Manzini, receives moderate rainfall of 700–900 mm, with summer highs around 28°C in Manzini and winter highs around 22°C. The eastern Lowveld (around 250 m elevation) presents hot, dry conditions with the lowest rainfall in the country and summer temperatures reaching around 40°C, supporting cattle ranching and sugarcane cultivation.

The climate is Köppen Cwb (subtropical highland) in the Highveld and Cwa (humid subtropical) in the Middleveld, transitioning to BSh (hot semi-arid) in portions of the Lowveld. The country experiences Southern Hemisphere seasons reversed from the Northern Hemisphere, with December marking midsummer and June midwinter, and approximately 80% of annual precipitation falling during the October–March rainy season.

Mbabane (Highveld capital, 1,243 m elevation) sees highs of about 19–21°C and lows of 6–8°C in the June–August winter and highs of 24–26°C in the November–March summer with reliable rainfall, while Big Bend (Lowveld) registers warmer conditions throughout the year. Piggs Peak lies in the northwestern Highveld, the wettest region of the kingdom.

The severe January 1984 Cyclone Domoina dropped 906 mm at Piggs Peak, including 615 mm in a single 24-hour period, causing the worst flooding in over 20 years; rivers rose 30 m in hours, the floods destroyed or damaged over 100 bridges, closed the main airport, cut railways, destroyed 10,000 citrus trees, caused $54 million in damage, killed 73 people, and left 500 homeless while isolating southeastern regions accessible only by air for days.

The severe 1992 ENSO drought damaged subsistence agriculture across the kingdom. The severe 2015–16 El Niño drought hit the economy, decreasing sugar and soft drink concentrate production (the country's largest exports), and demonstrating the vulnerability of rain-fed maize cultivation that sustains most rural households.

The 2019–20 drought further strained water resources and agricultural productivity. Recurring droughts driven by El Niño cycles increasingly threaten the 75% of the population dependent on subsistence agriculture on Swazi Nation Land, where low productivity and minimal irrigation infrastructure amplify climate vulnerability. Flash flooding during intense summer thunderstorms periodically overwhelms drainage systems, particularly affecting low-lying areas near river courses.

Comparing the last decade against the 1940–1970 baseline, mean temperatures across these cities have risen by about 0.7°C.